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 GUIDE TO WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS (Draft) |
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WEST MORRIS REGIONAL HIGH SCHOOL DISTRICT
Copyright West Morris Regional High School District
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GUIDE TO WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS (Draft) |
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WEST MORRIS REGIONAL HIGH SCHOOL DISTRICT
Copyright West Morris Regional High School District
Placement & Structure of Parenthetical Documents
Using the Internet as an Information Resource
Introductory
Statement: A Note to Students
Learning to conduct research is an important aspect of the high school experience. While there are various approaches to the research project, West Morris Regional High School district asserts that there are recognized standards in the academic world. The research project is one that follows an organized process. This guide is intended to address the many issues involved in academic research. While West Morris Regional recognizes the Modern Language Association (MLA) as the preferred style, there are other styles used to write research papers. You will recognize that certain disciplines have their own preferences. You will encounter these styles in your reading at West Morris and during further educational experiences.
In any event, the ability to use a library to interpret what you read, to organize information, and to express yourself clearly are skills that will be valuable in almost any career.
A Word of Caution about Research
Traditionally, libraries have been the place to go for reliable factual information and good quality fiction. The materials have gone through careful writing, editing, and reviewing in the process of being published. Many publishers are known for their high standards and are well respected in the field of research. In addition, the staff responsible for buying reference materials for a library use reliable vendors, read reviews, and have special training in collection development.
A few years ago, CD-ROM products became readily accessible and affordable for home computer users and also found a place in library collections. Some are better than others. Others have substituted graphics for depth of coverage. In some cases, the print edition of an encyclopedia contains more depth than the electronic version, particularly in older editions. As this type of product is evolving, it puts more responsibility on the student researcher to understand that there are limitations and that it may be necessary to look harder and dig deeper, or to explore a number of different resources rather than being satisfied with what appears to be the quickest way to find information.
The Internet has further complicated the research process. It contains a limitless amount of information, much of it unedited. While it is true that major mainline publishers and researchers construct wonderful Web Sites, it is also true that anyone can say anything and appear to be an expert. Thus, you will find a wealth of information that may be too elementary, biased, poorly researched, out of date, incomplete or blatantly inaccurate. With this in mind, remember that the Internet is merely another tool and that there might be a better or faster one for your particular topic.
Return to table of contents
At first, the research process may seem like an insurmountable undertaking, but it can be broken into manageable tasks that will allow you to write a better paper with less work and aggravation. The following steps are suggested as a guide for writing your paper.
Prewriting:
Step 1: Topic Selection
Step 2: Preliminary Reading
Step 3: Framing a Research Question - Exploring a Possible Thesis
Step 4: Preliminary Bibliography
Step 5: Outline and Final Thesis
Step 6: Note Taking
Writing:
Step 7: Rough Draft
Editing:
Step 8: Revising Rough Draft
Step 9: Writing Final Draft
Step 10: Proofreading and Evaluation
STEP 1: CHOOSING A TOPIC
When choosing a topic, search for something that meets the following criteria:
STEP 2: PRELIMINARY READING
If you are truly interested in your topic, the research process should generate excitement. Think of yourself as an investigative reporter, a detective, uncovering information that is yet undiscovered. Think of your library as a great starting point for your new adventure. Read as much as you can about your subject--Enjoy your journey!
STEP 3: FRAMING A RESEARCH QUESTION - CHOOSING A THESIS
A research paper is really a long answer or a series of answers to a question that a reader may have about a given topic. What question do you want to answer about the topic you have chosen?
Some sample questions:
After you have asked your question, phrase it in the form of a focused statement that will allow you to use available information to prove or substantiate it. When formulating your thesis, use specific, concrete words. Your thesis does not need to be an absolute truth, but something that will provoke thought and can be proven by your research. We can now make our four research questions into good, focused thesis statements.
- America became isolationist after World War I because economic prosperity at home led to apathy toward foreign policy.
- Shakespeare's anti-Semitism was a reflection of the time period in which he wrote.
- Japanese businesses are very successful because of the family atmosphere within the business and a strong work ethic within the Japanese culture.
- DNA analysis will revolutionize the use of evidence in criminal trials.
STEP 4: PRELIMINARY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Now that you have asked an insightful question about your topic and formulated your thesis, you can disregard all sources that do not help you prove your thesis. ALWAYS KEEP YOUR THESIS IN MIND to help you focus your research and to help you avoid irrelevant information and materials. Just because a source is "good" does not mean it is beneficial for your research goals.
STEP 5: OUTLINE AND FINAL THESIS
The outline should serve as a road map for your journey with your thesis as your navigator--it tells you where to go. When writing your outline, keep your destination in mind. Your information will help you get there, but how will you organize your journey? The outline should have the thesis statement placed at the top of the page where it can be referred to often. Your teacher may require you to write one or both of the following outline types: a topic outline, in which the headings and subheadings are a series of words or phrases, not complete sentences; or a sentence outline, in which every heading and subheading is a complete sentence. Your teacher can help guide you through the outlining process. Keep in mind, the outline is not meant to hamper or restrict you, but can be changed and revised to allow you to better prove your thesis.
STEP 6: NOTE TAKING
Note taking will help you establish a way in which you can easily retrieve information that you have researched. There are many ways in which to take notes. Some people prefer index cards. Others prefer legal pads or other types of paper with source summary information written in a manner that the researcher can understand. Whichever method you choose, be sure to include: subject heading, the note, and an identification of its source. The identification of source is particularly important in your attempts to avoid plagiarism. Remember, the better the note taking, the better your paper. If you avoid "padding" your paper with long quotes or extensive quoting, your paper becomes more enjoyable and informative to the reader. Summary notes take more time and effort, but they save time in the long run, since they can be incorporated, verbatim, into your final paper.
When taking summary notes, read your source at least once, digest it, look away from the source, write the summary in your own words, and then check it again for accuracy. Remember: You can use these summaries in your actual paper with credit given where credit is due. Ask your teacher for help if you are experiencing difficulties taking notes.
STEP 7: ROUGH DRAFT
Remember, the rough draft is just that--rough. Resist the temptation to perfect opening sentences or paragraphs. You will have time to do this later. Good introductions sometimes do not surface until you finish writing the entire paper. When doing the rough draft, get to the heart of the subject without regard for stylistic considerations. Save such considerations for your final draft. If your note taking was solid and you have a good outline, your rough draft should almost write itself. Simply follow your outline and keep the focus on your thesis. At this stage of the composition process, do NOT be concerned with the length of the paper; write until you have used all of your notes.
STEP 8: REVISING A ROUGH DRAFT
In revising your paper, you should be concerned with the major matters of organization, the development of ideas, logic, and continuity. Read through your paper carefully to see whether it flows smoothly. You may even want to read it out loud, keeping in mind that if it does not sound good to you, it will not sound good to the reader. This may necessitate adding a transitional paragraph here or there to carry the reader from one point to another. This may also be the time to determine if you need to add or delete information that will help strengthen the support for your thesis.
STEP 9: WRITING THE FINAL DRAFT
Now is the time to concern yourself with matters of style, sentence structure, and word choice as well as incorporating the final changes made during the revision process. This is also the time when your introduction and conclusion should be finalized and polished.
STEP 10: PROOFREADING AND EVALUATION
After all the effort you have made, it would be a shame to hand in a research paper ruined by careless mistakes. Although it may seem as though the paper is finished, this is where attention to detail is vital. Be forewarned, "spell check" and "grammar check" are good, but not fool-proof. They will not recognize, for example, the difference between "horse" and "house" as long as they are spelled correctly. Needless to say, such an error would drastically change the meaning of your sentences. Plan to spend at least one hour checking for typing errors, faulty source citings and bibliographical entries as well as numerous other mechanical errors. The importance of meticulous proofreading cannot be overemphasized.
As you prepare to submit the final copy to your teacher, evaluate what you have learned. Judge the result of the work in conducting your research (effectiveness) and the research process (efficiency).
Now that you know these ten easy steps, you need not feel overwhelmed at the prospect of a research paper assignment.
Simply take it one step at a time, and remember to enjoy your journey!
Parenthetical Citation: Tradition and Rationale
Academic writers always attribute their sources; i.e., they supply a reference to inform their readers that they have borrowed material and where they have borrowed it from. This attribution was done for many years with a raised (superscript) number for a footnote or endnote, and a bibliography page at the end of the paper. This was the method endorsed by the Modern Language Association (M.L.A.), the organization which sets and determines procedures for academic writing in the arts and humanities. In the late 1980s, however, the M.L.A. changed its system of citation. The major change: M.L.A.'s preferred style is now parenthetical citation rather than footnotes. While it is not incorrect to use endnotes and footnotes to credit sources (certain disciplines do, indeed, encourage their use; speak with your teacher), M.L.A. publications and many college texts/manuals show parenthetical citation as the new method. (For other approaches including endnotes and footnotes, see Appendix A for the Chicago Style and Appendix B for the American Psychological Association (APA) style).
This guide explains both the parenthetical citation and the listing of sources that has replaced the bibliography.
For purposes of clarity, the phrase "documenting a source" in this guide refers to the parenthetical citation placed into your text where superscript numbers were used in the past. A parenthetical citation looks like this: (Hawkins 45). This means simply that the information which immediately precedes the document was taken from the source written by Hawkins, and was found on page 45 of that publication. The bibliographic data (author, title, publisher, city, etc.) for this source will appear, alphabetized, in the works cited list on the last page of your paper. The "List of Works Cited" has replaced the "Bibliography."
Plagiarism is the taking of someone else's work and passing it off as your own. Note that the work is derived from the Latin work for "kidnapper." Plagiarism is intellectual dishonesty, even theft. It is a serious academic infraction and must be carefully avoided.
Material you need not document:
a. Your thoughts, observations, and conclusions written in your own words. There is no need to document yourself. b. Information regarded as common knowledge. This includes historical information, general knowledge, and common sense. Examples:
Historical Information: Richard Nixon was the 37th president General Knowledge: Chicken pox is contagious
Common Sense: Drinking alcohol before driving is dangerous
If you are not certain the information is common knowledge, note how often it comes up while you are reading about your subject. If you find it appearing regularly without documentation, you may consider it common knowledge in that field. Generally speaking, you may regard material as common knowledge if it is readily familiar to average readers, people not specially educated or trained. If, however, you are in doubt, document the source to be safe.
Material you must document:
a. All information that is not your own or common knowledge. If the material, idea, wording, arrangement, display, and sentence structure belong to someone else, then you must give that person credit by documentation.
b. Word-for-word (verbatim) information you borrow from any source, regardless of length. Taking as little as a few words verbatim constitutes plagiarism if you do not document the source.
and use it in your paper, provided that you give credit with proper
documentation. This certainly includes material you locate
via computer/electronic searches.
How To Introduce Borrowed Material Into Your Text
Good writing is smooth writing, and that is the rule when incorporating another writer's words into your paper. Make the transition from your wording to the borrowed material as smooth and readable as possible. There are a number of ways to do this, and the method you choose is less important than the result; your sentences and those you cite should be smoothly meshed.
a. Weave the borrowed material into your sentence:
Literary historians point out that "Charles Dickens invented the paperback in 1836" (Walters 132).
Note the smooth flow from the writer's words in the material taken from Walters' text. The cited material easily becomes a part of the sentence; there is no abrupt switch from the writer's style to the quoted passage.
b. Announce your cited information:
Literary historians have pointed out an important fact: "Charles Dickens invented the paperback in 1836" (Walters 132).
Conclude your "announcement" with a colon, and follow it with your borrowed material enclosed in quotation marks.
c. Introduce a long citation in similar manner:
Material which is longer than four (4) lines in the body of the paper must be set apart. Indent 10 spaces from the left margin (or 2 tabs on a word processor), while maintaining the right margin as neatly as possible; some word processors cannot do this. In the following example, the left margin of the page is "In any discussion..."
In any discussion of Naturalism in literature, especially English literature, one must note that
Thomas Hardy was the principal naturalist in English literature. His theories can be labeled "pessimistic" because his characters are always under the control of various malevolent forces which affect every aspect of their lives. The typical Hardy character has no free will, and is an easy pawn for genetic, economic, and social forces. A very significant force in Hardy's novels is the class struggle (Howard 178).
In this example, note the absence of quotation marks. Material set apart from the text by the two tabs (10 spaces) rule is not enclosed in quotation marks as are citations within the body of the paper.
The Placement and Structure of Parenthetical Citation
In order to avoid an abrupt, halting reading of your paper, place the parenthetical citation where a pause would naturally occur, and as close as possible to the material it identifies. With rare exception, the best spot is at the end of the sentence; see previous examples.
In the course of your research you may use two or more books by the same author. Let's say that you are doing research on Thomas Hardy, a Victorian novelist. Professor Michael Millgate, of the University of Toronto, has written extensively on Hardy; you use two of his books for your paper. A simple citation, like (Millgate 346) will not suffice because it does not identify which of Millgate's books is the source of the quoted material. The citation you create must identify a specific work; there can be nothing vague about it. Further, and this is of central importance, the parenthetical document must be a mirror image of its entry in the "List of Works Cited" at the end of the paper. The "list" will be arranged alphabetically by author or title.
Because the citation must make clear which work by Millgate you are using, you must identify the specific book in the citation; you are free to decide how to do so. Generally, researchers abbreviate the title. For example, if one of Millgate's books was his biography of Hardy, then this would be an acceptable document for it: (Millgate, Biography, 213). Note that there is a comma after the author's name, and since one of the words in the book's title is in the document, it is italicized (or underlined if your word processor will not italicize.) In this way you have specifically identified which of Millgate's books you have cited.
b. The author is unknown
When your research involves periodical literature ó newspapers and magazines ó you will frequently find articles that are not signed. The "List of Works Cited" is arranged according to author, yet when you do not know the author, there is no problem. Because you must create the "List" and the documents which mirror each other, the lack of the author's name requires that you list the article in the "List" by title. That is the rule: The "List" is by author; when the author is not known, it is listed by title of book or article.
Example: You find an article on diplomatic immunity in New York City in U.S. News and World Report entitled "Less Immune." The parenthetical citation would look like this if the article ran more than one page: ("Less Immune" 17). If it were a one-page article in the magazine, the page number would be redundant because the page number would be in the "List" at the end. The citation for a one-page article would be: ("Less Immune"). Quotation marks are used because you are citing the exact title of the article.
Remember: As the researcher, you must create parenthetical documents which point to a specific work in the "List of Works Cited." List by author, and if not known, by title. It is that simple.
One final point here. It is possible, even likely, that you may cite from the same source more than once. The first citation for a specific source will always include the author's last name and page number: (Smith 23). If your next citation is from the same source, only the page number is used in the document: (47). Use this method for all subsequent citations for Smith's work used consecutively. If you cite Smith three times and then cite another source, your fourth citation from Smith must be of the standard name and page form. Use of page numbers only is reserved for consecutive documents for the same source.
Treat computer sources, as well as CD-ROMs, as books or periodical articles. List by author first, then by title if the author is unknown. The entry in the "List" will look like that of a book, as will the parenthetical citation. With the great variety of computer search services available, no complete list of examples is possible here. One example will suffice; adapt it to your specific situation.
The "List of Works Cited" would show:
Wilson, James L. Northern Trails for the Underground Railroad. Boston: Wilkinson Systems, 1989, Item 4332.
And the parenthetical citation would be: (Wilson). If there were also a book by the same Wilson, or another one, in the "List", then the citation would include the item number to differentiate it from the book: (Wilson 4332).
Documentation of Other Electronic Sources:
In creating a list of works cited which will include sources from CD-ROMS, it is important to remember that CD-ROMS are very much like books; they are distributed by publishers and may have an author. The city where the publisher (or vendor) is located may also be available, as well as the date of the electronic publication.
Here are some examples of entries for CD-ROMS in a list of works cited: Note that the list of works cited is always double spaced, both between and within entries.
Non-Periodical Sources:
The Bible. CD-ROM Dataset--The Old Testament. Parsippany, NJ: Bureau Development, 1990.
Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Shakespeare on CD-ROM. N.p.: CMC Research, 1989.
("N.p." indicates the researcher was unable to locate the place of publication. Similarly, the researcher would use "N.d." if the date of publication could not be found.)
Williams, Edward. On the Eve of the Civil War. U. S. History on CD-ROM.
Dallas: H.P. Smith and Company, 1989.
Encarta 96 Encyclopedia. CD-ROM. N.p.: Microsoft 1993-95.
"Cather, Willa." Discovering Authors. Vers. 2.0. CD-ROM. Detroit: Gale, 1996.
A critical article from Discovering Authors would be documented in the following way.
Hicks, Granville. " The Case Against Willa Cather." English Journal. Nov. 1993: 703-10. Discovering Authors. Vers. 2.0. CD-ROM. Detroit: Gale, 1996.
A Magazine Article:
Breslau, Karen. "A spring break to envy." Newsweek 7 April 1997: 60. Infotrac: SuperTom+. CD-ROM. Information Access. May 1997.
A Newspaper Article:
Wilson, James. "Scientists to Launch Probe of Mars." New York Times 7 March 1997: A1. New York Times Ondisc. CD-ROM. UMI-Proquest. May 1997.
A Journal Article:
Sereno, Paul. "Dinosaurs and Drifting Continents." Natural History 104 (Jan. 1995):
40-7. Wilsondisc: Readers Guide Abstracts Full Text (Mega ed.). CD-ROM. H.W. Wilson. August 1997.
Dictionaries and other reference works are also available on CD-ROMS.
Example:
The Oxford English Dictionary. 3rd ed. CD-ROM. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1994.
Publications found on floppy disks (diskettes) are cited in similar fashion, because they generally contain the same type of publication information:
Example:
The Print Shop. Diskette. San Rafael, CA.: Broderbund Software, 1989.
Citing material from NEWSBANK, a CD-ROM publisher of information that was originally published in another format:
Example:
Wood, Daniel. "Largest Welfare-to-Work Program Called a Success." Christian Science Monitor 20 April 1993: 3. CD NewsBank. CD-ROM. NewsBank. May 1993.
Treat computer sources like materials in print, with authors, publishers, and the like. Keep in mind the major rule of documenting sources: You must create both documents and lists which accurately give credit to your sources. That is the sole purpose of the M.L.A. system.
While the M.L.A. no longer endorses the use of endnotes or footnotes to credit sources, endnotes are still widely used for the writer to speak to the reader and in other professional fields..
Endnotes are still quite useful when you, the writer, have something to say to your reader. You would do so in order to elaborate on a point, to suggest further reading on the topic, or to simply make an observation to your reader. (In academic writing the "reader" is not only the professor who is grading the paper; it is all who share an interest in the field under discussion.) Here is an example:
There is certainly some credibility to the widely held theory that Thomas Hardy's first marriage was the key factor in his pessimism so evident in his later novels. 1
Entitle the page after the last page of your text "Endnotes," and number it in sequence with the preceding page. This page is the one before the "List." Because this is the first note, it would look like this:
1 For an interesting discussion on the role of marriage in Hardy, see Robert Gittings: Thomas Hardy's Later Years. It is one of two biographies of Hardy by Mr. Gittings in one volume. The other is Young Thomas Hardy. (New York: Book-of-the-Month Club, 1990).
By using the endnote you are able to suggest further reading on the topic, in this case the work of Thomas Hardy, without interrupting your textual discussion. Observe the correct form for typing endnotes: The raised number is indented five spaces (or one tab) from the left margin, and the note begins after one space. If the note runs to longer than one line, as here, the second and subsequent lines begin at the left margin. Also, even though the example is typed in single spacing, remember that everything is double spaced. This includes endnotes.
First, a bit of rationale. When the M.L.A. changed the entire system of academic documentation, they did so with wisdom. For years, researchers used footnotes or endnotes to credit their sources, and then concluded the paper with a bibliography. Consulting footnotes and endnotes made for awkward, interrupted reading, and the bibliography at the end simply showed a list of books. It is certainly more efficient to use in-text citations (parenthetical citation), and it is more honest to use a List of Works Cited. Etymologically speaking, the word "bibliography" comes from the Greek for "list of books." It makes little sense--and serves no real purpose--to write a paper (of any length) to which one attaches a list of books. In essence, one is saying "Here's my paper, and a list of books." One could easily write a ten page paper and attach a bibliography of, say, 75 books. The word "bibliography" does not imply that the researcher actually read, used, or cited from those books. The List of Works Cited, includes ONLY the sources that have been parenthetically cited throughout the paper; if the work is NOT cited in the paper, it is NOT in the list.
The list is the last page of the paper, and it is numbered consecutively from the preceding page (which may be the endnotes page). Centered at the top is its title, either Works Cited or List of Works Cited. The sources are arranged alphabetically, and the entire list is typed double-spaced, both within and between entries. Indent the second and subsequent lines five spaces (or one tab) from the left.
In a typical freshman English research paper, there are three (3) kinds of sources used most frequently: books, periodicals, and "other sources" which usually include computer sources, pamphlets, and indirect sources. In the next section of this guide, are examples of the most commonly used sources as they would appear in the list.
Examples of an M.L.A. List of Works Cited
Keep in mind that each entry begins at the left margin, is double-spaced, and the second and subsequent lines are indented five spaces, or one tab. Note that all book and periodical titles are in italics, or underlined if you cannot italicize. Article titles are in quotation marks. You may use short versions of publishing firms, and you may abbreviate. See the commentary, below.
BOOKS
The full name of the publisher is Random House, yet Random suffices.
Note that periods - not commas - separate items in the entry.
The publisher is Yale University Press, but you may abbreviate to Yale UP. The entry is long, so the second and subsequent lines are indented. Authors' names are used for alphabetization, but only the first author's name is inverted.
Only the first writer (or editor) is given, followed by the Latin expression "et. al." meaning "and others." Note the permissible abbreviation of the University of Chicago Press. Remember that while the examples are single-spaced here, the list is double-spaced.
---. Martin Chuzzlewit. New York, Oxford UP, 1987.
List the author's name for the first book only. For subsequent books, type three hyphens, followed by a period and two spaces. Then type the title of the work. Alphabetize works by the same author.
10th ed. Ed. Sylvan Barnet. Glenview, Illinois: Scott Forseman, 1992.
Books which are themselves collections of literary criticism may be treated like anthologies.
List by author's name if the article is signed. Since encyclopedias are alphabetical, you may omit page numbers. For familiar sources such as encyclopedias, publication data is not needed.
PERIODICALS
Abbreviate all months, except May, June, and July. Here the article runs on consecutive pages. For an article which runs to a nonconsecutive page, give the first page number followed by a + sign.
Newspapers follow the same style as a weekly magazine, with the addition of the section number (or letter) followed by the page number.
Unsigned articles were discussed earlier in this guide, the example was this article!
OTHER SOURCES:
Thomas Hodgeson points out that "Charles Dickens gave Edgar Poe the idea to write a long poem about a raven" (qtd. in Colborn 231).
In this citation, "qtd. in" ("quoted in") shows that Hodgeson was quoted by Colborn. The list of works cited then includes only Colborn (the work consulted and not Hodgeson).
Jan. 1992: 16-27. DIALOG file 2Gl, item S206341.
Treat pamphlets like books. This one was not signed, so it is listed by title.
This section has illustrated the fifteen (15) most commonly used sources that one normally encounters when writing a paper in freshman English. Of course, there are many other kinds of sources which you may use as you conduct your individual research. There are a number of formally published guides on the market which explain all types of sources, and you may decide to purchase one. If you do so, please consult the section(s) on M.L.A. style. You can find further examples in the library or your school's Web Site.
As you do your research, please keep the major rule in mind. Your entry in the List of Works Cited must accurately identify the source, and the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper must be a mirror image of that listed entry. No source may appear in the list which was not cited parenthetically in the paper.
The Annotated List of Works Cited
One of the most useful tools of research is the Annotated List of
Works Cited. While a bibliography is simply a list of books, the
Annotated List of Works Cited is by far more versatile. It is a
means by which the researcher can evaluate various sources in
terms of their relevance and importance to the research project;
certainly not every source is equally valuable or pertinent. Upon
completion of the project, the Annotated List of Works serves as a
record of sources used, and their usefulness in the overall
support of the project's thesis.
Some teachers may not require an annotated list as part of the finished project; they may require such a list only as one of the steps, or stages, along the way. The list here is one for a research project in naturalist literature, specifically the work of Stephen Crane, Thomas Hardy, and Emile Zola.
Auerbach, Erich. Mimesis. Trans. Willard R. Trask. Princeton: Princeton U.P., 1953. An excellent study in the method of comparative literature; an essential work for the comparatist.
Bakker, B.H., ed. Correspondance d'Emile Zola. Vol. 1. Montreal: Les Presses de l'Universite de Montreal, 1978. A collection of Zola's letters, helpful in understanding his personal theories of naturalism.
Becker, George, ed. Documents of Modern Literary Realism. Princeton: Princeton U.P., 1963.Contains excerpts from several naturalist works, European and American. A good start to a comparison of theory and style.
Beer, Stephen. Stephen Crane: A Study in American Letters. 1923. New York: Octagon Books, 1972. A biographical study of Crane's career, and the influences of both his Methodist upbringing and personal experiences as shapers of his fiction.
Darwin, Charles. On the Origin of Species. 1859. New York: New American Library, 1958. A seminal work in the field of naturalism, it is important for the scientific genesis of naturalist literature.
Gibson, Donald B. The Fiction of Stephen Crane. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois U.P., 1968. A good, general survey of Crane's fiction, with important discussions of Maggie and "The Open Boat."
Gibson, William M., ed. The Red Badge of Courage and Selected Prose and Poetry By Stephen Crane. New York: Holt, 1968. Useful for the perceptive introduction to Crane's canon, as well as the notes for each work included.
Goetz, William R. "The Felicity and Infelicity of Marriage in Jude the Obscure." Nineteenth Century Fiction, 38 (1983), 189-213. Marriage is at the heart of Jude, and this article is useful for its explanation of the Victorian views on marriage.
Hardy, Florence. The Life of Thomas Hardy. Hamden, Ct.: Archon Books, 1970. A good biography of Hardy, but somewhat biased, and at times, less than honest. For a reason: Hardy wrote it himself, and put his wife's name on the title page.
Hardy, Thomas. Jude the Obscure. New York: Penguin, 1978. Hardy's last novel, and among his ugliest. An excellent rendering of his belief in the power of fate as determiner of the course of human events.
- - -. Jude the Obscure. Ed. Norman Page. New York: Norton, 1978. One of Norton's critical editions, it is especially credible given Page's expertise.
King, Graham. Garden of Zola. New York: Harper, 1978. Invaluable for its accuracy of the genealogy of the Rougon-Macquart.
Knapp, Bettina. Emile Zola. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1980. A general appraisal of Zola's fiction, useful for his theories of literature as manifested in certain novels.
Martin, Cyril. La GenLase de I'Assommoir. Paris: Hachette, 1965. Very effectively documents Zola's notion of heredity; an invaluable source for IAssommoir research.
Pinion, F.B. A Hardy Companion. New York: St. Martin's, 1978. Pinion discusses every Hardy novel and short story, and has much to say about the poetry as well.
Spiller, Robert E. et a[. Literary History of the United States. 4th ed. New York: Macmillan, 1974. An excellent handbook for American literature. Discusses writers in their historical context.
Staliman, R.W. Stephen Crane: A Biography. New York: Braziller, 1973. This is the definitive biography of Crane.
Zola, Emile. "Ebauche." I'Assommoir. Paris: Typographie Franqois Bernouard, n.d. Zola's explanation of his intentions in writing this novel. Somewhat defensive, but useful nonetheless in assessing the results of his plan.
Using the Internet as an Information Resource
In the process of doing research, you need to access information efficiently and effectively. You must also identify a variety of potential sources of information, print as well as online. It is essential to evaluate critically and competently the information found. While most print resources found in the library media center have been chosen for accuracy and quality before inclusion, the Internet presents the researcher with enormous quantities of information which may or may not be authentic, accurate or unbiased. Therefore, when using the Internet as an information source, evaluating the information is essential.
The following considerations must be made when evaluating World Wide Web resources:
What is the authority or expertise of the individual or group that created this site?
Is he/she qualified to write on this subject?
Is there a way to verify the legitimacy of the page's
sponsor? (A postal address or phone number, rather than
simply an e-mail address.)
v ACCURACY
If statistical data is given in graphs or charts, are they clearly labeled and easy to read? How does the information compare with that in other sources in the field?
v OBJECTIVITY
Is the information free of advertising?
If there is any advertising at this site, is it clearly differentiated from the informational material?
Does the author have a bias?
Does he/she express a particular point of view?
Is he/she affiliated with a particular organization,
institution or association?
v CURRENCY
When was the Web page or site mounted?
When was the Web page or site last revised?
If links to other sites are given, how current are they?
If material is presented in graphs or charts, is it current?
v CONTENT
How complete and accurate are the information and the links provided?
What is the relative value of the Web Site in comparison to the range of information resources available on the topic? (We recommend you check the library media center's print collection!)
v OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
If so, is the name of the copyright holder given?
Is the site completed or still under construction?
If there is a print equivalent of the Web page, is it clear whether the entire work is on the Web page or only a portion of it?
Remember, the only constant on the Internet is change! Be sure to continue to evaluate your sources, for they are ever-changing!
v World Wide Web
Author. Full title of the complete work in quotation marks. The date if known and if different from the date accessed. The full http address. The date of the visit. Example:
Brown, Joseph P. "A History of the American Indian." June 1993. http://www.execepc.com /~dboals/k-12.htm. (5 Dec. 1997).
Example:
Milbury, Peter. "Important identification for LM_NET Messages." (15 Feb. 1997) pmilbury@ericir.syr.edu (18 Feb. 1997).
Example:
Jones, James. "Virtual Reality." Personal e-mail (26 May 1996).
Thomas, Joseph. "American History Research Project results." student4@planet.net (5 Sept. 1997).
Author. Full title of the paper in quotation marks. Document date if known and if different from the date accessed. Address of ftp site along with the full path to follow to find the paper. Date accessed.
Example:
Joyce, Adam. "The American Frontier" (3 Feb. 1997).
ftp.umd.edu.pub.doc (3 June 1997).
The use of electronic resources for research as well as for writing, publishing, and creating graphics has blurred the line between plagiarism and copyright violation. In addition, computer software and the use of the Internet has made it very easy to simply grab an audio or video clip, cut and paste an image from a photo, and creatively mix and match graphics. You may want to do this to create a multimedia presentation or to enhance your homepage. Being able to do it easily, however, does not mean that you should. Your decision to do this may result in copyright infringement which can result in legal action against you and a hefty fine. You need to understand what is and is not allowed according to law.
While the purpose of the Research Guide is to define plagiarism and to illustrate proper form for giving credit to others, it may be necessary to know just how much of someone else's work you may use--and under what circumstances. What follows is a brief summary of what U.S. copyright law allows, what "fair use" guidelines are, and some quantity limits for different materials. For more detailed information, see references about copyright available in our Library Resource Center and at educational institutions' Web Sites. Some examples are listed at the end of this section.
U.S. copyright law (Title 17, U.S. Code, Section 16) gives five rights to the creators of intellectual property as long as it has been put down in concrete form, such as prose, poetry, graphic arts, music, video, etc. Any work created after January 1, 1978, is automatically protected by this law. These five rights are reproduction, adaptation, distribution, public performance, and public displays. The owner of these property rights may sell or license them to another as he/she wishes.
This copyright law has been amended by Congress to grant exceptions to these strict legal requirements to schools, students and certain other nonprofit entities. These exceptions have become known as "fair use guidelines." Fair use of copyrighted material means that within certain limits, it is not copyright infringement if it is for purposes of criticism, news reporting, teaching, scholarship or research. In other words, under certain circumstances, others may use this intellectual property as long as they follow these guidelines.
To determine whether what you intend to use/copy violates these guidelines, four questions need to be asked: (1) Is the use for nonprofit educational purposes only? (2) What is the nature of the copyrighted work? Fiction or nonfiction? (3) What portion of the whole is being copied? (4) Will this result in the loss of income for the creator?
Several examples of appropriate and inappropriate use are:
a. In the course of researching musical instruments, you print out an entire article about the trumpet from Encarta to read later. This is considered personal use and is allowed. However, should you put your name on the article or alter it and turn it in as your own work, you have not only plagiarized but also committed a copyright violation. b. You find an image you want to use in a collection of clip-art. Most clip-art is shareware or in the public domain; so you are invited to use it. Just remember to give credit.
c. You are creating a multimedia project by combining text, audio and video for an assignment. Follow "fair use" and quantity guidelines, (listed below). State on your opening screen that copyrighted materials have been used and that you have done so following the "fair use" guidelines. Give credit to your sources. You then make copies for yourself and for others who may also have worked on the project. All of this is permissible. But should you decide to post this on a Web page, you have entered other territory and need more information to protect yourself than space allows in this Guide.
In 1996, the Fair Use Guidelines for Multimedia were established and defined quantity limits on material teachers and students may use:
Remember, in all cases you must give credit to your source! You may also need to request permission to use works from the creator and adhere to some time limits.
For further information, see:
Reference Book:
Simpson, Carol Mann. Copyright for Schools: A Practical Guide. 2nd ed. Worthington, OH: Linworth Publishing, 1997.
Internet Resources:
Copyright Questions and Answers
The Copyright and Fair Use Website
Example of university copyright statement for students
United States Copyright Office Website
The Chicago Style - Bibliography Samples
Book with one author:
Boorstin, Daniel J. The Discoverers. New York: Random, 1983.
Book with multiple authors:
Gilbert, Sandra, and Susan Gubar. The Madwoman in the Atticó The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. New Haven: Yale UP, 1979.
Book with an editor:
James, Henry. Selected Fiction. Edited by Leon Edel. New York: Dutton, 1953.
An Encyclopedia:
The Columbia Encyclopedia. 1993 ed. S.v. "Mammoth."
Article in a monthly magazine:
Lapham, Lewis. "Who and What is American?" Harper's (Jan. 1992): 43-49.
Article in a newspaper:
Williams, Roberta. "New Fears in Central Europe." New York Times, 14 June 1991, sec. 4: 1.
An unsigned article:
"Less Immune." U.S. News and World Report, April 1978: 84.
CD-ROM
Wood, Daniel. "Largest Welfare-to-Work Program Called a Success." Christian Science Monitor, 20 April 1993: 3. CD NewsBank. CD-ROM. NewsBank. May 1993.
For further information on the Chicago Style, contact the school's Web Site or visit your library for a copy of:
The Chicago Manual of Style. 14th ed. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago, 1993.
The American Psychological Association (APA) Style
APA Reference Samples
Book with one author:
Boorstin, D. J. (1983). The discoverers. New York: Random.
Book with multiple authors:
Gilbert, & Gubar, S. (1979). The madwoman in the atticó The woman writer and the nineteenth-century literary imagination. New Haven: Yale UP.
Book with an editor:
James, H. (1953). Selected fiction. In Edel. (Ed.)., New York: Dutton.
An Encyclopedia:
Mammoth. (1993). In The Columbia encyclopedia. (Vol. 2, pp. 453-455). New York: Columbia UP.
Article in a monthly magazine:
Lapham, L. (1992, January.) Who and what is American? Harper's, 43-49.
Article in a newspaper:
Williams, R. (1991, June 14) New fears in central Europe. New York Times, sec. 4: 1.
CD-ROM
Wood, D. (1993, April 20) Largest welfare-to-work program called a success. Christian Science Monitor, 3. CD NewsBank. (1993, May) CD-ROM. NewsBank.
For further information on the APA Style, contact the school's Web Site or visit your library for a copy of:
American Psychological Association. (1994). Publications manual of the American Psychological Associates (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
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Updated August 24, 2002
